Shofar Guide

Arthur L. Finkle June 4th, 2008

Many congregants become interested in sounding the Shofar themselves. But this manual is intended to be read before Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur (the period of repentance and atonement). It will attempt to help those who sound the Shofar (not an impossible task) as well as to develop an appreciation of this ancient instrument. The Shofar is the only musical Jewish musical instrument that survived two millennia in its original form and is still used to the sounding of the Shofar. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (10th century) stated that the sound of the Shofar raised awe and emotion in the hearts and souls of the people. Maimonides interpreted the sounding as reminding humankind of its duties to God. The mystical Zohar holds that the sound of the Shofar awakens the Higher Mercy.

The Shofar is the most-mentioned instrument in the Bible (72 times). It held a special religious and secular role in the life of the Jewish people. Only Priests and Levites were allowed to perform the religious function of blowing instrument of ancient Israel the Shofar in the Jewish Commonwealth.

The Shofar had several religious roles recorded in the Tanakh (the Bible), such as the transfer of the Ark of the Covenant (2 Sam. 6:15; Chronicles 15:28); the announcement of a New Moon (Psalms 81:4); the beginning of the religious New Year (Num. 29:1; the Day of Atonement (Lev. 25:9); the procession preparatory to the Feast of Tabernacles (Mishnah Hullin 1:7)’ the libation ceremony (Mishnah:  RH 4:9); and the Havdalah ceremony marking the end of a festival (Mishnah, Hullin 1:7)

In addition, the Shofar had a number of secular roles, such as coronating a king (2SAam, 5:10; 1 Kings 1:34; 2 Kings 1:13) and signaling in times of war to assemble troops to attack, to pursue, and to proclaim victory (Num. 10:9; Judges 6:4; Jeremiah 4:5 and Ezekiel 33:3-6)

In post-biblical times, the Shofar was enhanced in its religious use because of the ban on playing musical instruments for the destruction of the destruction.  It is noted that a full orchestra played in the Temple, including, perhaps, a primitive organ.

The Shofar continues to announce the New Year and the New Moon (on Ellul and Tishrei), to carry out the commandments on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.  The secular uses have been discarded (although the Shofar was sounded to commemorate the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967.

It is considered meritorious to use a curved shofar, symbolic of man bowing in submission to God’s will (RH 26b). The silence of the Scriptures as to why the horn is blown on this day left room for a wide variety of interpretations among later teachers. There are ten frequently quoted reasons, which scholars have attributed to Saadiah Gaon (Abudraham ha-Shalem, ed. S. Krauser (1959), 269–70):

1. Trumpets are sounded at a coronation and God is hailed as King on this day.
2. The shofar heralds the beginning of the penitential season (from Rosh Ha-Shanah to the Day of Atonement).
3. The Torah was given on Sinai accompanied by blasts of the shofar.
4. The conquering armies that destroyed the Temple sounded trumpet blasts.
5. The ram was substituted for Isaac.
6. The prophet asks: “Shall the horn be blown in a city, and the people not tremble?” (Amos 3:6).
7. The prophet Zephaniah speaks of the great “day of the Lord” (Judgment Day) as a “day of the horn and alarm” (Zeph. 1:14, 16).
8. The prophet Isaiah speaks of the great shofar which will herald the messianic age (Isa. 27:13).
9. The shofar will be sounded at the resurrection.

Maimonides (Yad, Teshuvah 3:4) writes: “Although it is a divine decree that we blow the shofar on Rosh Ha-Shanah, a hint of the following idea is contained in the command. It is as if to say: ‘Awake from your slumbers, ye who have fallen asleep in life, and reflect on your deeds. Remember your Creator. Be not of those who miss reality in the pursuit of shadows, and waste their years in seeking after vain things which neither profit nor save. Look well to your souls and improve your character. Forsake each of you his evil ways and thoughts.”  (Encyclopedia Judaica, 1994)

What is a Shofar?

A Shofar is the horn of a kosher animal, except that of a cow, processed and used to sound notes as a bugle.  Similar to a brass instrument, in which the lips vibrate to make the sound, there are no pistons or other devices to modify its pitch.  (Mishnah 3:1)
An animal horn is a pointed, bony structure on the heads of many mammals.  Most horned animals have a pair of horns.  Such animals as cattle, sheep, goats, and antelope have true horns.  Deer have horn-like growths that are not true horns.  These growths are called antlers.

Properties of an Animal Horn

 Horns have a bony core.  The core is an extension of one of the skull bones.  A layer of skin covers the core.  This skin contains a protein called keratin that makes the horn extremely tough and durable.  Keratin «KEHR uh tihn», is a tough, insoluble protein found in the outer layer of the skin of human beings and many other animals.  This outer layer of skin is called the epidermis.  The outermost layer of cells of the epidermis contains keratin.  The keratin in these cells makes the skin tough and almost completely waterproof.  In places where the skin is exposed to much rubbing and pressure—such as parts of the hands and feet—the number of cells containing keratin increases and a callus develops.  Cells that contain keratin are constantly being shed and replaced by new ones.  The condition known as dandruff results when the scalp sheds such cells.

 Keratin is also a part of certain structures that grow from the skin.  For example, the nails and hair of human beings contain keratin.  In animals, such growths as horns, hoofs, claws, feathers, and scales consist mainly of keratin.  Keratin helps make these structures stronger and better suited to protect the body from the environment.  (Wit, 2000)

In animals such as sheep, where “head butting” is common in jousting for dominance to obtain mates, the horn is surrounded by a sheath of keratin (the same material your nails and hair are made of), which is used for absorbing the force of the head butt.  The structure of the horn that is exposed above the skull is composed of keratin.  It is for the most part dead tissue.  It is attached to the skull at the subcutaneous level, where it is live tissue.  When young, dairy and beef cattle are de-horned to prevent injuries to their handlers and the other cattle.  The keratin of a ram’s horn is a sheath, or covering, that grows around the actual horn in order to protect it.  It is hollow because the horn itself (bone) fits into that hollow space.  This sheath is used as a musical instrument. 

On the other hand, although antlers are also made up of keratin, in antlers it is more firmly packed, so the antler is dense.  Antelopes, like sheep, have horns (made up of bone) with a keratin sheath for protection. 

Biblical Basis for the Shofar

The Shofar goes back far into biblical history. It is believed that the Shofar commemorates the ram that was caught in the thicket by its horn (Hebrew: Keren).

The Shofar had several religious roles recorded in the tanakh (the bible), such as the transfer of the ark of the covenant (2 Samuel 6:15; 1 chronicles 15:28); the announcement of the new moon (psalms 81:4); the beginning of the religious new year (numbers 29:1); the day of atonement (Leviticus 25:9); the procession preparatory to the feast of tabernacles (Mishnah, Hullin 1:7); the libation ceremony (Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 4:9); and the havdalah ceremony marking the end of a festival (Mishnah, Hullin 1:7).

“Throughout the day, Abraham saw the ram become entangled in a tree, break loose and go free. Then, become entangled in a shrub, breaks loose and goes free.  The holy one who is blessed said: “so shall your children become entangled in many kinds of sons and trapped in many kingdoms. But in the end, they will be redeemed by the sound of the Shofar.”
(Sefer Haggadah 3:45).

In addition, the Shofar had a number of secular roles, such as coronating a king (2 Samuel 5:10; 1 Kings 1:34; 2 Kings 1:13) and signaling in times of war to assemble troops, to attack, to pursue, and to proclaim victory (Numbers 10:9; Judges 6:4; Jeremiah 4:5 and Ezekiel 33:3-6).
In post-biblical times, the Shofar was enhanced in its religious use because of the ban on playing musical instruments as a sign of mourning for the destruction of the temple. (It is noted that a full orchestra played in the temple, including, perhaps, a primitive organ.)
The word “Shofar” can be found in the book of Joshua, chapter 6 in numerous places and in Judges, chapter 7.  (Eisendrath, 1972).

Did the Levites Sound the Shofar in the Temple?

The Levites accompanied the Temple sacrifices and prayer with the sounding of a trumpet (Chotzotzerah) and a Shofar.  The Chotzotzerah (plural: Chotzotzerot) were made of brass and silver overlaid on a mandrel and hammered into shape.  On Rosh Hashanah, instead of the usual long notes played by the trumpets, the long notes were highlighted by the Shofar.  Thus, Rosh Hashanah is known in the bible as the Day of the Shofar Blast (Yom Teruah). 

How Are Shofars Used Today?

The Shofar continues to announce the New Year and the new moon, to introduce the Sabbath, and to carry out the commandments on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. The secular uses have been discarded (although the Shofar was sounded to commemorate the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967)

Jewish Laws of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur

The Mitzvah Of Hearing The Sounds Of The Shofar is emphasized that the mitzvah is fulfilled even if the Shofar is stolen or if the owner does not know that someone has “borrowed” his Shofar (SA 586:1) (For an explanation of Jewish Sacred Books of Law and Equity, see Appendix, p. 40.)

The Mitzvah is Fulfilled When HEARING the Shofar Sounds

The Sages indicated that the mitzvah was to hear the sounds of the Shofar. They go so far as to establish whether a person hears the actual sound or just the echo at the outside of the pit or cave; the bottom; and midway.  The Shulchan Aruch sums up that if the hearer hears the reverberation, the mitzvah is not valid.  However, if the hearer perceives the direct sounds, he fulfils the mitzvah.  Mishnah Berurah 587:1-3.  You can extrapolate this ruling to hearing the Shofar on the radio, the Internet, etc. as being invalid.

In addition, if one hears the blast but with no intention of fulfilling the mitzvah, then there is no mitzvah.  However, there is a minority decision on this point.

If one blows with the intention that all who hear will perform the mitzvah, the mitzvah is valid.  If someone passes by and does intend to hear the Shofar, he can perform he mitzvah because the community blower blows for everybody.  If he stands still, it is presumed he intends to hear.  (SA 590:9)

When Can It Be Heard?

The mitzvah of Rosh Hashanah is hearing the sounds of the Shofar. Mishnah 3:2; Josh 6:5.  If one listened to 9 blasts during the nine hours of the day, one fulfills the mitzvah because it meets the Biblical definition. “When they will make a long blast with the horn at the Jubilee [when you hear the sound of the Shofar] Josh 6:5  Thus, the mitzvah applies to HEARING the Shofar.  In addition, the mitzvah is valid if the Shofar is sounded by 9 different people, for each series of notes.

Sound: The Physics of a Sound Wave
 
Sound originates when a body moves back and forth rapidly enough to send a coursing wave through the medium in which it is vibrating.  To demonstrate, an explosion of a small balloon of compressed air produces a simple form of sound wave.  By bursting the balloon, potential energy (energy of position) is converted to kinetic energy (energy of motion).  These physical vibrations affect the pitch (note), the timbre (tone and overtones) and the loudness.

Most sound generators produce recurrent waves, which are generally similar to each other.  These waves are propagated at a definite velocity.  This velocity depends on the medium of propagation.

One cycle of a sound wave in air consists of one compression of the air together with the subsequent rarefaction that occurs.  The air molecules are forced together (compression or compaction) and then subsequently (in accordance with the 2nd law of thermodynamics) they immediately begin returning to their equilibrium state.  The equilibrium state of the air molecules is the state in which they were before the compression under observation occurred.

Sound moves forward in a straight line when traveling through a medium having uniform density.  Like light, however, sound is subject to refraction, which bends sound waves from their original path.  In polar regions, for example, where air close to the ground is colder than air that is somewhat higher, a rising sound wave entering the warmer region, in which sound moves with greater speed, is bent downward by refraction.  The excellent reception of sound downwind and the poor reception upwind are also due to refraction.  The velocity of wind is generally greater at an altitude of many meters than near the ground; a rising sound wave moving downwind is bent back toward the ground, whereas a similar sound wave moving upwind is bent upward over the head of the hearer.  Sound is also governed by reflection, obeying the fundamental law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.  An echo is the result of reflection of sound.  Sonar depends on the reflection of sounds propagated in water.  A megaphone is a funnel-like tube that forms a beam of sound waves by reflecting some of the diverging rays from the sides of the tube.  A similar tube can gather sound waves if the large end is pointed at the source of the sound; an ear trumpet is such a device.  Sound is also subject to diffraction and interference.  If sound from a single source reaches a listener by two different paths-one direct and the other reflected the two sounds might reinforce one another; but if they are out of phase, they may interfere, so that the resultant sound is actually less intense than the direct sound without reflection.  Interference paths are different for sounds of different frequencies, so that interference produces distortion in complex sounds.  Two sounds of different frequencies may combine to produce a third sound, the frequency of which is equal to the sum or difference of the original two frequencies.

The production of sound tubes used to produce a musical sound may be cylindrical, conical, or some combination of the two.  They may also be straight or curved.  Regardless of the material used, their interior surface must be smooth for best results.  The relation of tube length to diameter varies widely but must remain within certain practical limits in order to produce musical pitches.  The air contained within the tube is set into vibration by the breath or in some cases a bellows, acting upon a sound-generating device.  The pressure exerted against the molecules of air in the tube causes the particles to move forward along the tube until they bump into others, setting them in motion while the first bounce back.  This process creates regular pulsations producing sound waves.  Throughout the sounding length of the tube, the entire wave moves at the speed of sound.  The air itself moves only slowly, and the phenomenon has been compared to the starting of a freight train, in which the first burst of energy from the engine jerks the car behind, which in turn passes the impulse of the car behind it, and so on throughout the length of the train. The impact of the cars also produces a reverse pressure as it moves along. Similarly, at the sounding length of the tube, the waves are reflected back upon themselves, creating a counter pressure that forms nodes and antinodes.  The node results from interference between the forward and the reverse forces creating a static point; the antinode is the point of freest vibration in the sound wave.  Antinodes always occur at the open ends of a tube, and it must be remembered that the end where the sound generates is also an open end.

The note produced by this basic wave form is called the fundamental.  If the pressure of the generating vibration is increased sufficiently, the sound waves divide in half, producing an antinode in the exact middle.  This process is known as overblowing.  Pitches resulting from these divisions are called overtones, and their frequency increases in proportion to the division of the air column–that is, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, etc.

The relative strength of the various partials, which is controlled largely by the shape of the tube and the type of generator, is responsible for the timbre or color of the pitch.  This feature allows the ear to distinguish between the quality of various tones.  (1994-2000 Encyclop?dia Britannica, Inc.)

The Primitives learned that horns could make music.  By varying lip pressure, the Primitive could produce several different sounds—not all the sounds he might wish, by any means, but certain definite tones higher than the fundamental note of his horn.  With horns of different length, these higher tones were different.  He could not understand it, but he accepted it as one of the wonders of the horn.

We call these higher tones harmonics, and we understand nowadays the laws of tone production that make them possible:

1. When the column of air inside a horn is set in motion by the vibration of the lips, it produces a series of waves, which in turn produce sound.
2. When the column of air vibrates as a whole, it produces the fundamental tone of the horn.
3. By varying the pressure of the breath and lips, the air column can be made to vibrate in different ways: as a whole, in halves, in quarters, etc.  The sounds produced by the fractional columns are called harmonics of the fundamental tone.
4. The air column cannot be made to vibrate in any fraction desired, but only in certain fixed fractions.  (Montgomery, 1953)

The Primitive made sounds from horns, shells and other things. He had taken the first step in the development of our modern brass instruments.

Valid Shofar Sounds

The Sages raise the question of what constitutes a valid Shofar blast.  And begin the answer by analogizing sound and its echo in a pit.

Blowing the Shofar Inside a PitIf the hearer, who is outside a pit or cave, hears the reverberation from a pit, then he does not fulfill the obligation. If the hearer is within the pit or cave, he fulfills the obligation. (SA 587:1)
If one starts blowing the Shofar in the pit and then comes out of the pit playing the Shofar, the hearing is fulfilled.
If one hears the blast but with no intention of fulfilling the mitzvah, the obligation is not met.  However, there is a minority decision of the above statement. (MB 587:3)

 

100 Blasts

The Rabbi’s developed the rule that there should be 100 blasts during Rosh Hashanah.  The issue arises that, if there are nine blasts (biblically) how does one arrive at 100.  Thus, prior to the Reader’s Kaddish, 60 blasts should have sounded.  If there were nine blasts instead of ten, the count would be 56.  See table below.
           
Shacharis (morning) Service

Torah    30          27

Musaf             
Malchuyot           10            9
Zuchronot           10            9
Shoforot              10            9
Subtotal                60           56

Reader’s Kaddish 40           44

Rabbi Ezra Bick of Beis Midrash Yeshiva of Hebron, founded by r. Soloveichik’s son-in-law, R. Aaron Lichtenstein) states:

There is no REAL significance to the total number. One requires a tekiya-shevarim-tekiya. That unit gets multiplied a few times to reach 9, 9×3 (=30!) or 90 (100). For conventional reasons, we count tekiya-shevarim-terua-tekiya as 4 sounds, although you are correct - it  very likely should count as three. But these numbers are purely convention and have no real halakhic significance. We simply call it 30 to keep track.

The Torah requires nine sounds - as in SA 590:1-3.  The rabbis had a problem with the Teruah, whether it is nine short sounds, three medium sounds, or a combination of the two.  Therefore, we have three sets of nine; thirty (counting shevarim-teruah as two).  The “Shlah” (Rabbi who wrote on the customs) (SA 592:3-4) was stringent and had the custom (which is our custom as well) of blowing 30 sounds for “Malchiot, Zichronot and Shofrot” (the three blessings in Musaf) and added ten to complete 100 sounds (for esoteric reasons).

The Shevarim - Teruah, are generally counted as two sounds (in counting the thirty).  Halachically, although the Shevarim - Teruah  could be counted as one when the congregation is seated, (SA 590:16):  however, because the Shevarim and Teruah, are each counted separately in the other two series. the Teruah and Shevarim are counted as two in the counting of thirty, we therefore count them separately.  (SA 592:4), where all the hundred sounds are enumerated, and the Teruah and Shevarim are clearly counted as two sounds, in counting the hundred sounds; the custom mentioned in the “Shlah.”  Accessed 12/26/01.  E-mail by ebick@etzion.org.il (Ezra Bick)
A weak or elderly person may lean on a shtender or a table during these sets of tekios.  (SA 585:2)

A person who is in dire circumstances (a patient in the hospital, a shut-in; etc.) and is unable to hear (or blow) thirty blasts, should try to hear (or  blow) 10 sounds, one tekiya, shevarim-teruah, and one tekiya, three times. No blessing, however, is recited over these blasts.

The Chafetz Chaim considers a horizontal split to be at least four thumb-breadths or a tefach (length of a fist) from the mouthpiece.  He considers a circumferential split to be a hole  (Mishnah Berurah:9, Note 53) However, if the lesser part (where the hole is in the larger part of the Shofar) is nearer the mouthpiece, the Shofar is valid in time of pressing need.  We reason that if the patching material is of same type, then no there is no illegal mixing of composition.  The Chafetz Chaim encourages this reasoning when there is no alternative facing the Baal Tekiah.  (Mishnah Berurah, 586:9, Note 56).
Delays and Interruptions

The distinction between interruption and delay (distraction and interruption) is that an interruption is voids the whole series of sounds.  A distraction, however, is a shorter duration and the Baal Tekiah repeats the repeats the whole group of note where he was distracted.  (SA 588:6-7; Magen Avraham; Rema in Simon 83,  and Shayar Hatziyum, which applies to the second day too)

MISTAKES WHILE BLOWING

There are basically two types of mistakes that the tokea can make while blowing Shofar. The most common is that the tokea tries but fails to produce the proper sound. The general rule is that the tokea ignores the failed try, takes a breath, and tries again.

The other type of mistake is that the tokea blows the blast properly, but loses track and blows the wrong blast, e.g., instead of shevarim he thinks that a tekiah is in order, or instead of teruah he thinks that a shevarim is due and he blows the shevarim. In that case, it is not sufficient to merely ignore the wrong blast; rather the tokea must repeat the tekiah which precedes the shevarim.

When a tekiah needs to be repeated, it is proper that the makri notify the congregation of that (by banging on the bimah, etc.), so that the listeners do not lose track of which blasts are being blown. Another example is when the tokea mistakenly blows [or begins to blow] two sets of shevarim or teruot in a row. The original tekiah must be repeated.

When Is It Forbidden to Sound the Shofar?

Although the Bible states that the Shofar can be sounded on the Shabbat, the Rabbis’ ruled that the Shofar can not be sounded on the Shabbat.  Rambam; Aruch ha Shulchan.  However, because Rosh Hashanah lasts two days, one can sound the Shofar on the non-Sabbath day.  The Rabbi’s made one exception: one can sound the Shofar on the Shabbat if Beis Din of 23 (large regional community).  (R. Jochanan b Zakkai )

The Sages forbade sounding the Shofar on the Shabbat because the Baal Tekiah would have to carry the Shofar and carrying on the Shabbat is a forbidden activity.  (SA 587:14)  Although the HaGra ruled that one could use the Shofar as a utensil or to draw water on Shabbat, the TAZ  ruled that it is not dignified to use a sacred instrument for the aforementioned purposes.  He reasons that the Shofar was used in the Temple in ritual ceremonies.  Therefore, it should be accorded reverence.  Indeed, the same sanctity applied to the etrog as something sacred (MB 588:5, Note 15)

Thus, the Sages abide by the rabbinical practice of making a fence around the Torah. In order to keep an obligation, the Rabbi’s created walls or fences to hold down the desire to perform otherwise.  (Mishnah: Pirke Avot 1:1; 3:13)

Who is Qualified to Sound the Shofar?

The Shulchan Aruch begins its exploration of fitness by citing excluding classes of people: 

1. A Baal Tekiah can perform this mitzvah again, if no one else is available who is qualified.  If one does have such an obligation (such as women who are not required to abide by time-bound mitzvot, can’t perform the mitzvah. MB 589:1 (1)] The Rabbi’s reasoned that If perform a mitzvah, have an obligation to help another perfect his own obligation because all Israel responsible for one another.
2. The mitzvah is not valid for a deaf mute (cannot hear), moron (lacks the capacity) and a child (lacks the adult status).  Women are exempt because the mitzvah is time-bound.  If a person has a certain level of obligation, such as a woman, then she performs that obligation.  The problem between men and women comes when there are different levels of obligations.  Men cannot no waive time-bound mitzvahs.
3. A hermaphrodite may make his Shofar sounding serve for other hermaphrodites
4. Women should not be Baal Tekia’s because they would be substituting her efforts for another whose duty it is to perform a mitzvah.  However, if a female Baala Tekiya has already intoned the Shofar for other women, it is valid.  However, women should not make a blessing. 
5. Only a freeman (not even a slave who will become free in the next month) can be a Baal Tekiya. (SA 590:1-5)

Generally, a person fit to sound the Shofar is a male adult who is obligated to perform the mitzvah of sounding the Shofar. His repeat performance does not serve to relieve others of that obligation.  (SA 589:1)

Being a Baal Tekiya (Shofar Sounder) is an honor.

The one who blows the Shofar on Rosh Hashanah . . . should likewise be learned in the Torah and shall be God-fearing; the best man available.  Nevertheless, every Jew is eligible for any sacred office, providing he is acceptable to the congregation.  If, however, he sees that his choice will cause disruption, he should withdraw his candidacy, even if the improper person will be chosen. Shulchan Aruch 3:72.

Moreover, the Baal Tekiya shall abstain from anything that may cause ritual contamination for three days prior to Rosh Hashanah.  Shulchan Aruch 3:73

A Baal Tekiya can sound the shofar for shut-ins, hospital patients and home-bound women who had recently given birth.

If a blind blower was dismissed, but the community did not find a blower as proficient, he should be appointed as community blower.  The touchstone is proficiency not disability.  (Radbaz)

Who is Fit to Blow the Shofar?

In addition, a deaf-mute, moron and child are not required to hear the Shofar .  However, if a hard of hearing person can hear through an assistive device, he is permitted to sound the shofar. [MB 591:1 (2)]

An Onan (one who is not yet in mourning but whose parent has died but not been buried), not required. 
R. Kolbo - compiler and halachist of prayer book

The Rema ruled if one cannot speak but can hear, then obligated  (589:1 (2)

A hermaphrodite may make his blowing serve other hermaphrodite (his own kind) If a male person heard the blasts form a hermaphrodite or indeterminate sex, should be blown again, without prayer.  587:4 (5)  In any event, even if a  hermaphrodite sound the Shofar, he shall not offer a prayer (Magen Avraham, commentator on the Shulchan Aruch)

A partial slave and partial freeman cannot sound the Shofar because one half can’t act for the other half. 
(SA 587:8)

There are general exceptions to this rule of exclusion:  a person who perform mitzvahs w/o obligation will receive reward  (SA 587:7); and a child is also able to blow Shofar on RH even initially in order to be educated to performance of mitzvah.  (SA 587:9; MB 596 gloss  — a child must be educated in Shofar even after Shofar notes are sounded) 

Proper Order of the Shofar Sounds

 Tekiyah

A sound (tekiah) serves the purpose of one’s hearing the plain note before and the plain note after.  (SA 588:4)

Each teruah sound must be accompanied by a plain sound before and after.  The Sages learned from the tradition that all teruah sounds of the 7th month required by the Torah relate to a single set of sounds that must be blown on Rosh Hashanah (Lev. 25:9) and to announce the Yovel (Jubilee Year - Lev 25:8-13:  (590:1)

Tekiah, teruah, tekiah
Tekiah teruah tekiah
Tekiah teruah tekiah

1) VaYikra 23:24 for TK “A rest, a remembrance of a teruah of a Shofar”
2) For RH a day of teruah it should be for you Ba-Midbar 29:1
3)  Also derived for Tobit’s slaying of Sisera.  [MB  590:1(5)]

Teruah - Shevarim

The Sages were in doubt as to whether a teruah was a yelping sound (teruah) or a howling sound – shevarim. To dispel all doubt , they decided to sound a combination of the two sounds together.  Thus, it always necessary to blow a series of notes (SA 590:2)

To satisfy all of the above opinions, the Rabbis established that the three sets of tekios be blown in three different ways, alternating the teruah sound in each set. Thus we blow tekiah shevarim-teruah tekiah (TaSHRaT) three times; tekiah shevarim tekiah(TaSHaT) three times; tekiah teruah tekiah (TaRaT) three times. All together that adds up to thirty different blasts - eighteen tekios, three shevarim-teruahs, three shevarim and three teruahs. This is the minimum number of blasts that every adult male(7) is required to hear on Rosh Hashanah. These are called tekios d’myushav, since the congregation is permitted to sit while they are being blown. In practice, however, it is universally accepted to stand during these tekios.

Duration of the Notes

Some authorities indicate that each sound is generally similar in duration as the others, except the tekiah gedolah.  MB 590:2  There are other authorities who rule to extend the shevarim somewhat, provided he does not extend the note too long.
However, the Mishnah Berurah rules that, if one wishes to extend the sound considerably, a Baal Tekiah should have no compunction, as there is no maximum length for this sound.  The Baal Tekiyah may also extend teruah sound as long as wishes.  (MB 590:2)
R. Karo and the Chofetz Chaim agree that the tekiyah should equal the teruah MB 590:2 (5). There is a continued discussion of the Tosfos, the Tur, Rashi and the Mordechai about the extension of the shevarim.  However, the Rabbi’s generally rule that the shevarim is equal to the teruah and the tekiah. 
[592:2 (3)]

Praying The Musaf Prayer Aloud And The Shofar Blasts

It is the practice first to sound the entire series of 30 notes during the Shofar (Shoforot) part of the service.  Thereafter, the Shofar is sounded (Tekiah, teruah-shevarim, tekiah) three times each at the Kingship (Malchuyot); and the Remembrance (Zichronot) part of the service.  Congregants must stand for this event. Although, in the minority, in some communities the practice is three series of sounds are only sounded once each.  (SA 592:1)
The decorum for the blasts is that no one should interrupt his [prayer during the Shofar sounding and none should speak during the blasts either sitting or standing.  (SA 592:2-3)
Although customary for the same Baal Tekiah to sound the Shofar throughout the service, it is not essential. In other words, other Baal Tekiot may sound the Shofar at different parts of the service, when the Shofar is sounded. (SA 592:4)
If the Baal Tekiah does not know the sequence of the blasts or makes a mistake during the sequence of blasts, he should proceed if he gets two of the blasts sequences correct because, according to Torah law, we do not know which the required series is in fact. Therefore, one should make the blast so one series that he knows how to blow in case it coincides with the true series required. (SA 593:2)
After the service it is the practice for a long teruah sound to be blown without the tekiah sound. There are also towns where it is the practice to blow again the thirty Shofar sounds after the prayer service. 
(SA 596:1)
It is praiseworthy to teach a child how to blow the Shofar after Rosh Hashanah services.

Yom Kippur: the Neilah Service

On Yom Kippur, the last service of all-day praying is the Neilah Service which ends with the Shofar sounding. One should blow the Shofar the sounds tekiah, shevarim teruah, tekiah, although there are authorities who say that one should blow one tekiah counts. The Shofar should be sounded after the community prayer has said the Kaddish following the Neilah prayer. Some localities have adopted the practice of having the Shofar sounded after the Kaddish prayer.  (SA 623:12)

May a Shofar be Repaired?

Generally, the appropriate Halacha rules state that, if a Shofar is flawed, you should get another Shofar to sound the blasts on Rosh Hashanah to fulfill the mitzvah of hearing.  That being said, does Halacha allow one to repair a Shofar?

If a Shofar can be repaired, what are the criteria by which to make such repair?  This article will explore the types of flaws a Shofar can sustain: a hole, a crack on the longitude of the horn and a crack on the circumference of the latitude (horizontal) of the Shofar.

The Shulchan Aruch begins with the problem of a hole in the Shofar and establishes the two great concepts on the Rambam and the Rosh for making a Shofar valid on Rosh Hashanah by repairing it.

If the irreducible minimum is to reestablish the purity of sound, can one repair the Shofar such that its sound can be replicated?  Is a note able to be replicated musically?  If not musically, is there another criterion to use to make the repaired Shofar valid?

The Shulchan Aruch, in section 586:7 (and Note 29 of the Mishnah Berurah) begins the issue of whether you can repair a Shofar.  It asks what can you do if the Shofar is perforated. In the Mishnah Berurah 586:26, the Chafetz Chaim sets up criteria from the sources.  He cites Rosh Hashanah 27b wherein Rabbi Nassan says ‘If one fills up the hole with the same kind of material, the Shofar is valid but if one fills up the hole with a different kind of material, the Shofar is invalid.’

The Chafetz Chaim generalized that two conditions have to be met to repair the Shofar:

 1.  The type of material
 2.  Greater part remains whole - size - two handsbreadth grips of the hand around the Shofar.
       (The Rabbi's set up measurements that can be easily seen.)

The Poskim write in accord with R. Nassan.  However, there are conflicting decisions amongst the Rishonim, particularly between the Rambam and the Rosh.

 The Rambam sets up a three pronged test (Hilchos Shofar 1:5)
If one repairs Shofar, one must meet all three conditions

 1.  Sound returned to what it was originally
 2.  Same material to repair
 3.  Size - at least two handsbreadth

 The Rosh maintains that only two of the three conditions must be meet:

 1.  Sound returned to what it was originally
 2.  Same material to repair
 3.  Size - at least two handsbreadth

 That being said, the Chafetz Chaim glosses that, if another non-flawed Shofar is available, then the Baal Tekiah should use it.  Only when one is stuck with a flawed Shofar should one use repair criteria of the Rambam of the Rosh.

 In Mishnah Berurah 586:27, the Chafetz Chaim introduces a fourth criterion, the concept of rubo. Rubo exists when the majority part of the Shofar does not have a hole.  If the robi did not remain whole, the Shofar is invalid according to all authorities, even if hole is plugged up with same material and sound is the same.  The Mishnah Berurah (586:37) however, assuming robi, rules validity, if two if the three conditions obtain.  More machmir reports the Chafetz Chaim in Mishnah Berurah586, note 31, "If the robi did not remain whole, the Shofar is invalid according to all authorities, even if hole is plugged up with same material and sound is the same."  However, most of the Poskim assume the validity of robi if two if the three conditions obtain.

The Gemara says that if the hole is filled up with the same material of the Shofar then it is valid. The Rambam comments that three conditions have to be met:

1. the blowing is not interfered with (the sound has to be very similar the original sound)
2. the hole is filled with the same type of material as the Shofar
3. greater part of the Shofar remained

The Rosh propounds that even if the hole is filled up different material from that of the Shofar, then it is valid, provided the remainder of the greater part of the Shofar remained and the blowing was not interfered with.
Even if the hole is not filled up, then the sound is still valid. However, the Acharonim ruled that if the greater part of the Shofar had a hole, the sound was invalid, even if there was a hand-breadth (required minimum length) (Sha'ar Ha-Tziyun)
However, in a time of pressing need when there is no other Shofar available, then it is valid to use a Shofar, if the hole were patched up with dissimilar material, if the greater part remained and the sound is similar.
If one removes the different fill prior to the Yom Tov, then the ruling on using a Shofar with a perforation would hold. (SA 586:7)

If a Shofar is split lengthwise, it is invalid. However, there are authorities who say that, when the Shofar had a minimal split is still invalid, unless it is bound by a thread or string so that the split will not widen. If the Shofar is filled with glue, the Shofar is valid, if the glue is not noticeable. If the glue is noticeable, the then glue is considered as a filling made with a dissimilar material... However, if the sound of the glued Shofar has not changed, then it is valid. (SA 856:9) 
If the Shofar splits breadth-wise (around the circumference of the Shofar), it is invalid if the split is on the mouth side and if the length required (four thumb-breadths) remains, even if the split interferes with the blowing.   The Chafetz Chaim considers a horizontal split to be at least four thumb-breadths or a tefach (length of a fist) from the mouthpiece.  He considers a circumferential split to be a hole  (Mishnah Berurah:9, Note 53) However, if the lesser part is nearer the mouthpiece, the Shofar is valid in time of pressing need.  Can use this reasoning that if material is of same type, then no there is no interposition.  The Chafetz Chaim encourages this reasoning when there is no alternative facing the Baal Tekiah. 
(Mishnah Berurah, 586:9, Note 56).

May a Split Shofar Be Repaired?

One cannot add to the Shofar from material of another Shofar to enhance its beauty or one cannot create a Shofar out of many Shofars. (SA 586:10)
If one scraped the Shofar on the inside or the outside, even, very thin like a scab, it is valid - even if the sound changes because the sound was not caused by foreign material. (SA 585:14)  Other laws include the prohibition to apply gold to the Shofar. (SA 585:16)  If the gold were on the inside, it would be invalid.  If on the outside, it wold be valid, unless the sound materially changes. 
Other laws concerning gold include the validity of a Shofar with carvings used as decorations. (SA 585:17)
Further, if one does not touch his mouth to the Shofar but nevertheless can produce a sound at a distance, invalid (SA 585:19)

Musicality of a Shofar

Like the trumpet, a Shofar has a mouthpiece that is shaped interest is in the quality of the tone and the when the horn is soft. (It is boiled first to extract the inside tissue) however; again there is none of the mathematical precision that is found in the trumpet. To find a Shofar that has a nearly perfect relationship sheer luck (Albert Kramer, Secrets of a Shofar Blower, Washington, DC: Gasilla’s Press, 1971, pp. 3-12).

In selecting a Shofar, it is critical to sound all the Shofars that are available in order to achieve the “best fit” between the mouthpiece and the lip embouhure. The primary concern is in the quality of the tone and the ease with which it is achieved. Almost any hollow tube can be made to produce a sound. But the sound desired is the true tone unique to the Shofar. A perfect one cannot really be found because it rough method of construction results in many flaws.

Even with a Shofar that seems to be satisfactory, the chances are that after it is blown for a moderate length of time, the warmth of the breath will warp it somewhat. The hope is that a Shofar will expand and contract reasonably evenly in all directions with changes in temperature so as not to throw it out of tune. Of course, this is nothing new with musical instruments, whose pitch is always subject to correction. Since the custom is to conceal the Shofar before it is played, what better method of concealment than to keep it near the body between the armpit and the chest and underneath the jacket, thereby concealing the Shofar and keeping it at body temperature.

The care of the Shofar is important for both assuring tonality and preserving the instrument itself. The Shofar is conventionally cleansed with vinegar. But this is unsatisfactory. Although our ancestors probably thought that vinegar was a good antiseptic, it is not. Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid. It is 95% water. Water has a hydration effect on the inside wall of the Shofar. The hard material of a Shofar is made essentially of a hard, globular keratin protein (related to hoof, hair, skin, claws, and fingernails). A manicurist, for example, softens fingernails by placing them in a dish of water. A similar softening effect takes place on the inside wall when vinegar is put into the Shofar, and the soft horn walls deaden the sound.
The horn of the animal is made hollow by cleaning out the marrow, blood, and cords. It is usually not possible to clean it out completely. The stringy parts left behind throw off an offensive odor when the parts come into contact with vinegar. A much superior way of keeping the Shofar clean is by the use of alcohol. Ordinary rubbing alcohol, either ethyl or isopropyl is satisfactory. Both are highly antiseptic and have the further advantage of drying quickly and completely which vinegar does not. You can obtain a very quick drying by placing the Shofar, after running alcohol through it, over the outlet grille of a room air-conditioning unit.

To produce a sound on the Shofar, it is necessary to vibrate the air inside of it by placing the horn against the corner of the mouth and by vibrating the lips, which induces vibrations of the air.
Air is an elastic medium in which waves can be reproduced by alternately compressing and rarefying it. Each lip should cover a part, preferably half, of the opening. If the lips are relaxed, they will vibrate and produce sound as the air passes through the horn. A minimum of 16 vibrations per second is necessary to produce sound audible to the human ear. The tauter the lips, the higher the sound pitch.
Contrary to popular belief, it is not a strain to blow the Shofar. The effort required is relatively slight in vibrating the lips. In fact, perfecting a decent sound from a French horn or trumpet is much more difficult. In addition, there are no fingering techniques to learn. A Shofar is like a primitive bugle.

 Because there waw a dispute as to the actual sound of the teruah, the musical notes occur in sequence, in order to show this compromise. (Rosh Hashanah 4:9) There are also regional (Lithuanian, Hungarian, Sephardim, etc.) Differences regarding the exact notes sounded for the different sounds. The following section is based on the system I use.

Sounds of the Shofar: Musical Interpretation

The tekiyah note starts out as a low note, near the fundamental tone of the Shofar; then it rises quickly about three notes in the diatonic scale. Finally, it proceeds to a full octave above the first note. This may be diagrammed as follows:
The higher notes are obtained by tightening the lips.

The shevarim consists of the short blasts, each one-third the duration of the tekiyah.

The teruah is simply nine staccato notes sounded in rapid succession. Again, the duration is one ninth that of the tekiyah.

To correctly render the teruah, it is necessary to accent the last note. There is also another school that accents the last note and takes the note up a third. The teruah is a sound of nine staccato blasts. The tekiyah gedolah is an elongated tekiyah. Hold it as long as you are able. You should be able to hold it for 30-40 seconds with the proper breathing from the diaphragm and chest cavity, as any wind instrumentalist will tell you. When you have developed your embouchure sufficiently well, it is possible to elongate the third note as well as the second. This end flourish is dramatic. Which brings me to an often-asked question: "how long should you hold the last note (tekiah gedolah)?" Many people feel self-conscious about holding the note too long so as to seem to show off my answer is rooted in the Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 3:3, which indicates that the duty of the day (Rosh Hashanah) falls on the Shofar. Therefore, Rosh Hashanah is associated with the Shofar. Thus, the more emphasis on the Shofar, the better. (Ramban, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Shofar 11)

Finding a Shofar

In selecting a Shofar, it is critical to sound all the available Shofars because the easier to sound it, the better. Your primary interest is in the quality of the tone and the ease it is achieved. Almost any hollow tube can be made to produce a sound. But the sound of desired is the true tone unique to the Shofar. A perfect one cannot be really found because its rough method of construction results in many flaws.
Even the Shofar that seems to be satisfactory is liable to warp. The hope is that a Shofar will expand and contract reasonably evenly with changes in temperature so as not to throw the notes out of tune. This factor is not new to musical instruments whose pitch is always subject to correction. (Finkle, 1993)

Remember that you should blow the Shofar at the side our mouth. Right handers should blow on the right side of their mouths; left-handers, the left side.
Practice on the Shofars by making a buzzing with your lips to see if you can make a note. If you can, then the mouthpiece should fit your embouchure (lip and facial muscle configuration), limited as it may be at this point.

The price of a ram's horn Shofar generally runs about $40 to $80. A Sefardic (large) Shofar costs from $75 to $150. A triple-twisted Shofar costs $150 and up. If you want to display the Shofars, you may want to buy a Shofar stand, about $20.

Mouthpiece Placement

For 300 years, French horn teachers have advocated using a mouthpiece placement of 2/3 upper lip and 1/3 lower lip. With a Shofar, I find this technique valid. The fleshy part of the upper lip is the area that makes the quality of sound. Accordingly, this upper lip musculature should be developed. A higher proportion of upper lip is also beneficial in playing the entire range of the Shofar, which is generally two octaves--too little upper lip will not allow for production of the lowest notes of the horn.

Wet (Moist) Lips

Wet lips are especially important for the beginner because the mouthpiece will be free to settle into its most natural position over the fleshy mound on the upper lip. The eminent horn teacher Philip Farkas estimated that approximately 75% of professional brass players play with wet (or moist) lips. The primary advantage of wet lips is that the mouthpiece is free to move around somewhat and find its best, natural placement on the lips when first placed on the lips. This freedom of movement is also helpful in making large register changes as the mouthpiece is not "stuck" in one position. I can see no disadvantages to playing with wet or moist lips for the horn player.

To form an embouchure three groups of muscles are at work. The first are those muscles that bring our lips to an extreme pucker, such as would be used to whistle--the muscles around our lips. The second group are those which bring our lips to a smile--the cheek muscles. The third group is the muscle developed in the upper lip itself. When you have developed an embouchure, you can actually see these muscles, including the lip muscle by uncovering the lip while looking in a mirror.
Since muscles can only contract or relax, these three groups of muscles have to act in harmony. When you pucker, the cheek muscles relax while the lip contract. When you smile, the cheek muscles contract while the lips relax. Too much puckering can lead to a very soggy tone, while too much smiling will lead to a very bright tone with little endurance.

The Function of the Lip Muscles

The Lip Aperture, and the Chin

The formation of the lip aperture is very closely related to the way we use the cheeks and lips. Inside the mouthpiece, the lips form an opening roughly the shape of the opening of a bassoon or oboe reed. If the embouchure is too puckered or too much of a smile this ideal lip aperture shapes will be distorted.
Most often the aperture, if a problem, will be too flat due to too much smile in the embouchure or to the chin being bunched up. The chin should be flat--if it is bunched up this is a sign of a serious embouchure problem, which must be addressed.

Another possible way to look at this same problem is that there may be too much lip in the mouthpiece. Not only does this make the aperture "flat" in shape but also there is a characteristic bad tonal color to this embouchure and lack of dynamic range. Only a little extra lip in the mouthpiece can drastically alter the resulting tonal color. Playing with wet lips and a more open embouchure can make a great deal of difference on the instrument.

Aperture Control

An aperture is the hole through which the air passes form the player into the mouthpiece, eventually making vibrations that become the notes, timbre and loudness we hear. Playing. Especially in the high register, depends on aperture control. The aperture will have to be smaller in the high register than in the low register, and you want to practice in a way that helps you to feel the aperture contraction. If you look at a mirror, you will see that your lip and cheek muscles "smile" the higher the notes you sound.
Try to practice controlling the aperture from inside the mouthpiece, making it smaller from the corners and keeping the same basic shape playing low and high (think of the relative size the opening of double reed instrument (oboe and bassoon), both having the same type of small opening. So, you will constrict your inner lips to control the air coming form you, while keeping the same shape at the opening).
Another method of thinking of this, suggested by Fred Fox in his book Essentials of Brass Playing, is to think of the embouchure being controlled by two sets of muscles. One set is in the corners and is used to produce the sound "eeeeeeee" and the other set is in the middle of the lips and is used to produce the sound "mmmmmmmmmm." Aperture control involves the use of these muscles, especially the muscles used to say "mmmmmmmm." Proper aperture control will help not only the high range but will also help accuracy in general.

Mouthpiece Pressure and Playing High Notes

Some moderate mouthpiece pressure is obviously required to play brass instruments. However, especially during the warm-up, it is critical to not use excessive mouthpiece pressure in the high range. Only by practicing in this manner can real strength be developed. Why does mouthpiece pressure help in reaching the high notes? The reason is that the extra pressure makes the lip aperture smaller. Farkas gave the example of a doughnut, placed under a piece of glass. If the piece of glass is smashed down on top of the doughnut, the hole in the middle of the doughnut does get smaller.

Our lips are the same as the doughnut in this sense. As we press harder, the aperture gets smaller. The result is higher notes come out. But at the cost of tone and endurance. For Shofar playing, such force is very bad. Particularly a Shofar whose mouthpiece is sharp, the Baal Tekiah, can actually harm his embouchure by digging his lips into the sharp mouthpiece.

Functions of the Jaw and the Lips

The jaw is too often ignored as an element in forming a brass embouchure. The placement of the jaw is very important. The jaw, especially for the horn [and trumpet], MUST be pushed forward somewhat from its normal position at rest, so that the teeth are in line with each other (up and down), as though you were biting a sandwich (but not, however, pushed out beyond being even with the upper teeth). Another easy way to visualize this concept is to imagine spitting a watermelon seed out. You will not roll the lips over one another–the jaw will come forward a bit in a very natural way.
An easy exercise to check the jaw placement is the following: form an embouchure without the mouthpiece and blow. The air stream should go out at the angle of the instrument–nearly straight forward–not at a steep angle down the chin. Most sources on brass pedagogy agree that an embouchure where the lower lip is rolled over the lower teeth and the air stream flows down the chin is not a well-formed embouchure. Blow forwards and down the center of the mouthpiece.
(John Q. Ericson, Arizona State University, accessed June 12, 2002,
www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/ ; Philip Farkas, 1962)

Does the Mouthpiece Have to be Centered?

It is preferable to blow the Shofar from the right side, if possible, for Satan sits on his right to condemn him (Psalms 47:6) here is no Halacha on how to play a Shofar. By inference if it is not comfortable to play the Shofar form the right side, then one should play on the left side of the mouth. (Mishnah Berurah, 585:6, Note 7) I know some people play the Shofar as they would play a brass instrument from the center of their lips. While it is unusual, if they can do it, then let them. However, the more conventional way to place the mouthpiece again the lips is to place it at one side of your mouth because the opening of the lips is smaller to match the smaller circumference of a mouthpiece. 

Baal Tekiah’s Embouchure

The embouchure is the manner in which the lips and tongue are applied to such a mouthpiece. The word derives from the French embouchure (to put into the mouth). You must have the proper embouchure in order to sound the Shofar. Many Shofar sounders are not brass instrumentalists and do not know the techniques developed over the past three hundred years. If Shofar repairing requires the Shofar Sounder to change his embouchure, then we find another factor to consider whether the Shofar changes its tone. If, in fact, the repaired Shofar required a change in embouchure, the likelihood is that the Shofar’s sound changes.
To form an embouchure two groups of muscles are at work. The first are those muscles that bring our lips to an extreme pucker, such as would be used to whistle–the muscles around our lips. The second group are those which bring our lips to a smile–the cheek muscles. Either group can form a brass embouchure of sorts.

Muscles can only contract or relax. When you pucker your lips, the cheek muscles relax and the lips contract. When you smile, your cheek muscles contract while the lips relax.
To form a correct brass embouchure the actions of smiling and puckering must be combined and balanced in sort of a “tug-of-war.” Too much puckering can lead to a very soggy tone, while too much smiling will lead to a very bright tone with little endurance.
If the embouchure changes it may affect one or a combination of: 1) the angle of mouthpiece placement; 2) wet (moist) or dry lips; 3) amount of lip opening through which the air passes (the lip aperture); 4) the angle of the chin; and 5) the amount of mouthpiece pressure in playing the high or low notes. (Farkas, Philip, 1962; Arban, 1908; and Whitner, 1997).

Brass Instrument Techniques

Brass Instrument playing techniques fill a need in the area about which there is very sparse material in English. This article introduces some brass instrumentalist techniques to fit the aerophone, called a Shofar. Thin of orchestrating these techniques in to your repertoire so that you can give it all you have to fulfill the mitzvah of hearing the Shofar on Rosh Hashanah (Shulchan Aruch 585:3)

Warm-Up

WE MUST WARM-UP!  This should not be left to chance or treated lightly by a serious musician on any instrument. If I do not warm-up properly, my performance certainly suffers. Most brass players have several routines. For Shofar sounding, I suggest warming up on the fundamental note. Then, focus on your attack. Then play the Tekiah, Shevarim, Shevarim-Teruah, and Tekiah. Your warm up should be at home because the shul does not offer privacy. In shul, you should hold the Shofar between your arms so that the shorn will become the same temperature as your body. Then you should practice buzzing (for brass players, playing the mouthpiece alone). In the case of Shofar playing, you can buzz by shaping your thumb and forefinger in the shape of a mouthpiece and blow into it, to stimulate your embouchure. (The Art of French Horn Playing by Philip Farkas, The Complete Method by Milan Yancich, and in Embouchure Building by Joseph Singer. There are many good resources out there.)

When Should I Warm-Up? How Much Should I Practice?

Professional brass players warm-up every time they get the instrument out of the case to play. The first warm-up in the morning is the most important, as it sets your embouchure up for the rest of the day. The second and third warm-ups are usually shorter, but need to be there to maintain and build the embouchure.
A related issue is how much to practice, and when. I feel, if time allows, the serious brass student or professional usually practices three times a day for no more than one hour apiece. A Shofar sounder, not being a professional in the brass instrumentalist sense of the word, should practice each day at the same time standing up. Sitting down will change your embouchure.
Initially, practice the fundamental note until you feel your muscles. Do not play too much beyond this level. Your muscles are telling you that they have had enough. By repeated playing, however, your musculature will develop into high quality sound and endurance. Ten minutes is the usual limit.
Once, you have mastered the one fundamental note, you should concentrate on the attack. Such attack is determined by the position of the tongue’s touching the lips. In some cases, the tip of the front of the tongue can be the part of the tongue used to tongue the attack. In other cases, you can use the side of your tongue. Some use their side tongue and move it back. The issue is that whatever is most effective for the Shofar Sounder while maintaining a correct embouchure is the correct way.

Shofar Techniques to Save the Day

A Clean First Note
This can be a problem. Some hornists develop a “hesitation attack” where the note does not speak right away in time. The key is to breathe and play in rhythm–do not hold the air at the top of the breath, but let it go and start the first note right in rhythm.
The other aspect, of course, is playing the right note–accuracy! Try to develop a feel for the notes so that you know the sound and “feel” of each note before you play it. Mouthpiece buzzing can be a real help in developing a feel for what Farkas interestingly called the “flavor” of every note.
The “traditional” way for beginners to get their bearings in an attempt to find the first note they wish to play is to play the triad of notes going up from middle C–written c’, e’, g’–and to find the first pitch from this frame of reference. Ideally, a hornist can hear every note before they play it, although the reality is that this is not always the case. Another method to try is that of locating a note which you feel that you can hit and never miss, like the concert B-flat we tune on, and use that as a frame of reference to mentally locate and “hear” the note you wish to hit.

Warm-Down

At the end of a heavy practice session, rehearsal, or performance, a brief warm-down is of great use. I concentrate mine in the low range. Avoid the urge to just throw the horn in the case at the end of a long day–you need to warm down a little.  (John Q. Ericson, 2002)

Tonguing

Staccato Tonguing and More
What is staccato? It is sometimes defined as performing a note 1/2 as long as the notated value. The key to performing a beautiful staccato is the space between the notes AND the way we cut off the ends of the notes.
Some students mainly need to create more space–silence!–between the notes. Occasionally in an attempt to create that space will try to play staccato by performing in sort of an extreme “tut-tut-tut” style, cutting off the notes entirely with the tongue. The problem with this technique is that many musical situations will require a short taper or diminuendo at the end of the pitch.
If this is an issue, try instead to articulate “tuh.” This will create that short diminuendo necessary for a musical sound. Using the articulation “tuh” gets at the heart of another “difficult to explain” fact of brass playing, that notes are cut off somewhat back in the throat. The same “valve” which closes when we cough, the larynx or voice box, also closes when we cut off notes. The tongue and larynx cut off the notes at almost the same time, with the larynx helping to soften the end of the note. This action is very natural, but for some, this will need to be consciously learned in order to play in a musical manner.
Practice staccato in two ways. Practice slowly and very short–this will help develop the control needed. Also practice a very light and clear staccato–we need both styles.
There can be another related, unconscious problem for brass players. A few students will have a habit of relaxing the embouchure whenever the air is stopped. This is a big problem if trying to perform staccato passages, as this momentary relaxation of the embouchure between every note will make it impossible to play a decent staccato. The embouchure must retain its firmness during staccato passages.

Legato Tonguing

A softer, brushing tongue stroke is desired to create a beautiful legato. Try to articulate “due,” “thue,” or “lue” and keep the air moving well–the air must move as steadily playing four legato quarter notes as it does playing a whole note.
This type of tonguing is very close in style to the type of tonguing used to produce legato on the trombone. This tonguing style is very important for all brass players to learn.

Slurs

Lip slurs and flexibility studies are perhaps the most important single item to practice on the horn, as they develop the lip muscles, embouchure control, and tone.
To make a slur, the lips must keep buzzing between the notes, and the air must keep moving. You want to feel a VERY quick glissando from one note to the next–being careful not to perform “the notes between the notes” in larger slurs. Make the change of notes at the last moment. It is a very good idea to practice slurs on the mouthpiece for smoothness.
(John Q. Ericson, 2002)

Breathing

To play a brass instrument, breathing is obviously important, and it is different than our normal, everyday breathing in several respects. The most important single difference between our normal breathing and breathing to play a brass instrument is that our lungs need to be pretty much full of air. Our lungs need much more air in them than we usually take in during normal daily activities to play a brass instrument well, with a full tone. They should (in my opinion) be nearly full whenever you play anything on the horn.
The diaphragm is the large, flat muscle, which draws air into the lungs. The diaphragm by itself can only fill the lungs about 75% full. To completely fill the lungs requires the additional use of the muscles that surround the rib cage and cause it to expand.

Taking a large breath is a natural and uncomplicated process. What needs to be practiced by most brass players is deep breathing. I recommend two basic exercises.

1. Breathe in slowly through the mouth for 10 seconds (to the point the lungs are 100% full), hold the breath for 5 seconds, then exhale again slowly for 10 seconds. Repeat several times.
2. Follow this first exercise with a few quicker breaths that really fill the lungs.
The goals of these simple exercises are to practice using the lungs fully, control of the breath, and to practice taking large breaths quickly.

DO NOT PRACTICE THESE EXERCISES TOO LONG AT ONE TIME!
You don’t want to pass out–and a minute or two of breathing practice is plenty in any one session.

Good posture is very necessary for complete use of the lungs–if you lean to one side when you play, for example, the lungs cannot fill completely on that side. A final note is that while your lungs can’t get bigger through breathing practice, your effective lung capacity can increase because you can learn to use your lungs more completely. We want to develop the use of our full lung capacity.

“Support” – The Diaphragm

Another item related to breathing is “support.” Many brass players talk about support, but it is a term that is probably impossible to define. Proper support relates to pushing the air out of the lungs in a way that allows for a full tone, good dynamics, and control. This type of use of the muscles is unnatural, actually–the work of the diaphragm muscle is to pull air IN to the lungs, and the air flows out naturally when it is relaxed.
In playing the horn the muscles below the lungs (above our waist) contract somewhat in supporting the air column, pushing on everything “down there” and forcing the air out of the lungs from below. Especially in the high range, we want to support the air column well. This is a key as well to using less pressure and lip tension–a well-supported air column will allow for a more relaxed embouchure.
However, if “support” is concentrated upon too hard, it can lead to extra tension in the body. Proper support can lead to a better tone and high range; extra tension, on the other hand, can lead to a poor tone and trouble in the high range. Try to support without unnecessary tension.

“Huffing” the Notes–”Twa-Twa”

Occasionally you will run into performers who have a real problem with, for the lack of a clearer term, “huffing” notes–every note sounds like it has a small crescendo and decrescendo, especially a small crescendo on the beginning of each note. It is heard as a swelling on each note, a “twa-twa” sound that ruins every phrase. This style sounds bad–try to imagine a vocalist singing this way!–but the player often has no idea what they are doing, or why, because they are simply used to it.
What is usually happening is they are playing the beginning of every note softly to be sure that they don’t make a loud mistake, but on a subconscious level–they are really unaware of the problem unless it is pointed out.
Often support is reduced at the beginning of each note. The best exercise for simple awareness of the problem is to take your right hand out of the bell, place it on your stomach, and play. It should not move around. If “huffing” is a problem, practice things like slow slurred scales and etudes until you are able to play with an absolutely even dynamic and a firm stomach.
(John Q. Ericson.2002)
 

Practicing

The most often heard question is what do I practice? My answer is that you should first practice the fundamental note (the main note) of your Shofar. Practice this note until you have mastered it. You will find your embouchure “remembering” how to apply itself during the practice sessions. The next year, these muscles will also remember, once your embouchure is set. Practice sessions ought not to be longer than ten (10) minutes each. When you feel that your facial muscles are hurting is the time to stop. Your body is telling you to stop because there is too much stress on the undeveloped muscles. You do not want to injure your muscles.

After you have mastered the fundamental note, you next concentrate on the attack – the tonguing of the first note. This technique is achieved by practicing tongue control either with the tip of your tongue protruding through your lips and brings the tongue backwards or by the side of the tongue barely protruding from your lips. The attack is the single most important part of sounding the Shofar. The reason most players blow air instead of sound is that they have poor attacks. Then, when they draw air, they panic.
When you have mastered your attack, you now begin slurring by moving your lips into a smile position and back. Look in the mirror when you play the Shevarim, literally a sob. Many congregants have told that this mysterious sound really “get” to them. If so, you have played a big part in fulfilling the mitzvah of hearing the Shofar on Rosh Hashanah. (5Shulchan Aruch 586:3).

The next feature is to develop a staccato note. The teruah is a series of none staccato notes. This technique involves the fast playing of the note followed by a short pause – or none short note, followed by nine short pauses. You should start out slowly and then build up to faster short, staccato notes.

Many Shofar sounder lose count when they play teruah. To keep the count accurate, I play three sets of triplets or “1-2-3″, “1-2-3 and “1-2-3.”

The last note to practice is the Tekiah Gedolah, the long note at the end of the Shofar sounding. This note should be held as long as you can in practice as well as when you actually play. To achieve the best quality and loudness of this note, you must concentrate on the freshness of your embouchure, the amount of air breathed in and the support of your diaphragm. At first, this long note will seem difficult. However, twenty seconds will seem like an eternity when your final note is completed.

At ten minutes a day, for the month of Elul, 29 days before Rosh Hashanah, you will be a master Shofar sounder (Baal Tekiah).

The Day of Sounding the Shofar

There is normal anxiety when you go to bed the night before and the day of Rosh Hashanah for a Shofar player. This obviously is normal for someone who will play in front of an entire congregation, many of whom you know personally.
After dressing, I usually play the Shofar for the first round of: Tekiah, Shevarim, Shevarim-Teruah, and Tekiah. Then, I stop.
When I attend services that day, I keep the Shofar hidden from the congregation by resting the Shofar under my arm. In this way, I warm the Shofar to my body temperature, a brass instrumentalist technique. I also try to buzz into a pretend mouthpiece, composed of my thumb and forefinger simulated as a mouthpiece. In I can, I may go to a private place to warm up a little, although I find privacy less and less.
When you are ion the bimah, while the Torah and Haftorah are read, take several deep breaths to relax your body. I also will meditate by focusing my eyes on something in the synagogue . In one of synagogues where I play, I focus of a stain-glass window that depicts, two Shofars.

Playing Problems

While many Shofar Sounders experience many problems, I treat the major complaints others have experienced and have asked me.
The main problem is mental. Being in front of entire congregation without really warming up to play an ancient instrument one day a year is daunting. The main remedy to achieve mental acuity. Remedies include learning/Playing Paralysis; Zen mastery (Mental Aspect of playing.); claming you nerves; and the power of suggestion (positive thinking).

have you ever heard Shofar sounder blow in to the Shofar only to hear his air without any hint of a tone or note? This is a humiliating experience. Having experienced it myself, I have some suggestions:
1. Act as if nothing went worrying and replay the note again (MB 590:7, Notes 23-36), using another technique of lip placement, move the mouthpiece over your upper lip, change your attack by moving your tongue in another direction, or take a deep breath.

Poor Attacks

 

 
Weak Stuffy Tone

Weak, stuffy tone results from too little air used, too much pressure or a closed throat (when you play your voice box actually closes the back end of your mouth)

Bright Shrill Tone
A bright shrill tone is not a problem. The Shofar acts more like a trumpet announcing something special. The herald effect of a shrill tone satisfies this function.

A Changing Quality of Sound

Changing quality of sound means that you have poor breath support, your is either too tongue arched or you have some other tonguing problem.

Slow Response

You blow but the note is not immediate in perfecting itself. If so, you are using too much mouthpiece pressure or you have poor breath support or your lips too tense.

Missed Notes

Avoid Panic When You Miss a Note
You should keep in mind that when your note comes out incorrectly, it is better to know what to do beforehand what adjustments to make so that you can readily adjust rather than panic (and believe me, everybody has experienced this). If your notes are not exact, ignore the mistake and go on to the next note. If you blow and no note comes forth, stop the attempt and place the mouthpiece on moist lips in a different place or on a different angle. If you persist, aim for the fundamental note and just sound it with no other accompanying notes. When your lips get acclimated to the vibrations, you can sound the other notes.

Poor Endurance

Many, if not most Shofar sounders have a problem of endurance, particularly when they sound 100 notes. (Mishah Berurah 586:23, Note 88) I personally have a p problem when I sound the Shofar at more than three services. The reasons for lack of endurance may be using too much mouthpiece pressure; not sufficient practice; or the mouthpiece too big or deep. (Clint ‘Pops’ McLaughlin)

Shofar Gurgles

If your Shofar gurgles, you have spittle in the horn. The best remedy is to use a coffee brush or an aquarium brush to remove the spittle. In fact, after each section of the service in which the Shofar is sounded, you should clean the Shofar to avoid a spittle problem.

Shofar Odors

Shofars do emit certain unpleasing odors. Allow an instrument to remain in an open air space after playing.  Febreze is useful for deodorizing Shofars. Hydrogen peroxide could be applied in severe cases and it cleans the bell opening nicely. Be warned that it could dissolve the material in the mouthpiece area and hurt its performance.   Vinegar, although it takes away one smell, it substitutes its own acrid smell and it “eats” the keratin.

Another method is to use ethyl alcohol because it rids the horn of debris, which causes odor, and it dries quickly via evaporation.  You can also use ethyl alcohol to eliminate spittle that could severely compromise the sounds.
Mid-East Mfg. now has a functional synthetic Shofar that has no odor and it’s attractive for display purposes as well.

Shofar Care

Shofars should be kept in a comfortable temperature environment. Don’t leave it the car, the extreme heat or cold will damage it. Shofars can deform in shape if exposed to hot humid conditions. Sunlight will affect its appearance. Things that are used to protect fingernails can be applied but remember, it’s not growing. 
(http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/kadima/shofar.htm)

Non-Rabbinic Traditions

The Torah does not speak of a Rosh Hashanah, and if it had it would be the first day of the month of Nissan. The Torah specifies the first day of the Seventh month as Yom Teruah (Day of the Sounding), or Zichron Teruah (Remembering the Sounding). But the meaning of this term is unclear, because the word Teruah could mean a kind of trumpet (or Shofar) blast, but it could also mean a shout of rejoicing, not necessarily the blowing of a particular instrument. The only description of a celebration of the first day of the seventh month in the Bible is the one in Nehemiah 8:1-12 and there the blowing the Shofar is not mentioned. From the Book of Numbers and the Psalms we learn that the trumpet or Shofar were blown on Rosh-Chodesh, on the first showing of the new moon, which was the beginning of the Jewish month, In Rabbinical literature, the Mishnah discusses blowing the Shofar in the Second Temple and in peripheral synagogues on Rosh Hashanah. We do not know when this custom began, but it certainly became more significant as time went on and it acquired many symbols. (The best description of these appears in Isaac Earache’s treatise Akedat Yitzhak). The non-Rabbinic forms of Judaism accepted neither the idea of Rosh Hashanah nor the blowing of the Shofar.  (Much of this material was gathered from correspondence with Eliyahu Schleiffer, 12/27/01)

Samaritans

The Samaritans modeled themselves after the Jewish People. However, the Jewish People kept its distance from this polyglot ethnic group. Indeed, when Ezra, the Prophet returned to Jerusalem from his post a court advisor to the Persians (423 BCE), he forbade the Samaritans from building the Temple because they were not legitimately Jewish. The Talmud records that, after the Assyrians in 722 BCE conquered Northern Israel, the Assyrian authorities transplanted populations from their other conquered territories to Northern Israel and vice-versa. Accordingly, although many of these immigrants intermarried with the few Jews that were left, the religion became syncretized with several other pagan religions, always a nemesis of the Jewish faith community. The Samaritans, however, do not recognize Rabbinic Judaism, like the Karaites of the 8th century, In principle, the idea that the first day of the Seventh [biblical) month is Rosh Hashanah is an innovation of Rabbinic Judaism as well as the custom of blowing the Shofar on that day. The Samaritans celebrate the day by prayers and reading from the Torah. There is no Shofar blowing. For them it is also the beginning of preparation for Yom Kippur.

Karaites

The Karaites rejected the Rabbinic obligation of Shofar blowing. The most important authority on this is the great Karaite Hacham, Eliyahu Basheitzy of the fifteenth century. In his book Aderet Eliyahu (which is still considered the most important source of Karaite Halacha) he specifically denounced the Rabbinic ruling about Shofar blowing. According to Basheitzy, Teruah means noise of rejoicing which is executed by the human voice and not by any instrument.

Ethiopian Beita-Israel Tradition

It was not until 1844, when a missionary found a people observing Jewish ceremonies, going back to biblical injunctions that Ethiopian Jews were known to the Jewish world. Although there is many disputes about how this sect arose, the most common belief is that some Ethiopian people converted to Judaism when the Temple stood. However, after the destruction of the Temple, this sect was cut off form subsequent mainstream Jewry. Thus, Rabbinical Judaism was unknown to these Jews, most of whom lived in the poverty-stricken Gondar region in Northern Ethiopia. Most scholarship points to the conversion of these African people sometime before the destruction of the Second Temple. After the Romans sacked the Temple and dispersed the Jewish People form Jerusalem, communications apparently broke off from the Ethiopian Jewish community. Much of the religious tradition derives from the Hebrew Scripture, but not in Rabbinical sources. For example, during Passover, they sacrificed a sheep and the family feasted on it on the 14th day of Nissan. There is another school of thought that believes that the Beita -Israel tradition received much of its liturgy from Ethiopian Christian sources. When the first large group of Beita-Israel arrived in Israel, the Jewish Rabbinical courts insisted that all males be re-circumcised evidence that they were Jews, under the Rabbinical tradition. To this injunction, the Ethiopians objected. Nevertheless, they subsequently became involved in the Sephardic ritual community. As to the Ethiopian Beita-Israel tradition. The first day of the seventh month is called "berhan sharaqa" which means "the light appeared" (which is a commemoration of the birth of the world) and "tazkara Abraham", the commemoration of Abraham, relating to the binding of Isaac. About two generations ago they started calling it "re-esha awda amat," the head of the year. We do not know when they started to relate this day to the birth of the world or to the binding of Isaac. Their old customs do not testify to either. Thus for example their reading from the Orit ( the Ge'ez Bible) on this day does not include Genesis 1 or the story of the Akedah. It seems that the associations came from the influence of Jewish Rabbinic sources with which Beita-Israel came in contact from the late 19th century on. From some testimonies, we know that at one point they adopted the custom of blowing the ram's horn in commemoration of the binding of Isaac. But this custom fell soon into disuse and no Ethiopian community practiced it until it was re-introduced in Israel by the Rabbinic authorities of the State (Shelemay,  1986).
 
Appendix

Jewish Sacred Books of Law and Equity

Bible

Ancient religious practice as recounted in the Hebrew Scriptures describe the worship of God through the Priests and the Sacrificial Cult in the Temple in Jerusalem (in the Southern Kingdom) and in  Samaria (in the Northern Kingdom).  Descendants of the Priests (Kohanim in Hebrew) are often named Cohen, Kahn, Cohn, Katz, etc.  The Levites, the Priests' assistants from the tribe of Levi, are often named Levy, Levine, Levin, Levansky, etc.

Prophets

The Prophets occupy a very special place in the ethical development of the Jewish People.  Given the insight and the power of God's will, they often challenged the flawed ethical behavior of Kings, Priests and the everyday person.

Because all Jews believed that these divinely-inspired prophets spoke the actual word of God, they paid deference to the Prophets.  They allowed them freedom of expression, even though some of the Prophets would wind up in prison.

Nathan berates King David who had sent Bethsheva's husband to a certain death because he, alone, wanted this captivating woman for himself. 

Amos tells the people that they are worshipping the form of the Jewish religion instead of the mitzvot (commandments).  Forms are supposed to remind us of what the deed is.  Forms should not be worshipped in and of themselves.  He prophesied:

I hate, I despise your festivals,
and take no delight in your solemn gatherings.

Even though you offer Me your burnt offerings and your flour offerings,
I do not accept them, nor the peace offerings of your fatted beasts.

Take away from Me the sound of your songs;
I will not listen to the music of our harps.

But let justice rise up like waters,
and righteousness like a mighty stream. 
(Amos 5:21-24

After the fall of Northern Israel (721 CE) the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah do not preach hate against the victors.  Instead, they preach that the Jewish People experiences adversity because they have broken the covenant with God.  They preach that the forms are not what God demands, but higher moral standards.  With higher moral standards, they will re-enter the covenant and will return to prosperity in the land of Israel.

After the destruction of the Northern Kingdom by the Assyrians in 721 BCE (Before the Common Era) and the fall of the Southern Kingdom to the Babylonians in 586 BCE, the leaders of the people, the Priests and the Prophets, decided to codify Hebrew Scripture which, up to that time, has passed down orally.  However, without control of their own land, the priests decided to write Israel's history and covenant in the first five books of the Bible, the Torah.  In addition, small meeting places sprung up were Jews could meet, study and worship.  These places were called synagogues (the Greek word for  assembly houses) and the teachers were called Rabbis (Hebrew for teacher). 

There was a time, from 515 BCE to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE (Common Era), when the Temple and the synagogues existed side by side.  After the destruction of the Temple and after the beginning of the Diaspora (dispersion) of the Jews, there was the rise of the Pharisees who were the forerunners of the Rabbis.  They believed that religious law grew organically with the times and they believed in the bodily resurrection in the end times.  The Rabbis, seeing that the only way to survive was to have one official holy book, codified what is now the Hebrew Scriptures in 90 AD.  Christians call the Hebrew Scriptures the Old Testament.  However, there are slight variations between the two.  For example, all books written in Greek were excluded, including the Book of Maccabees and the Book of Baruch.
Over the course of many years, the Rabbinic scholars of the village of Jabnah (in Israel) continued to interpret the Bible and thousands of decisions cited the names of hundreds of different Rabbis responsible for them were accumulated.  The Rabbis believed that God handed down two laws on Mount ?Sinai, the Written Law  (Ten Commandments and the Hebrew Scriptures) and the Oral Law which adapted the Law as each generation faced new and unique situations which required legal interpretation.

Mishnah

Eventually, by 200 CE, the Rabbi’s (Tannaim) codified the oral law into a book called the Mishnah which generally interpreted the ethics and rituals of the Bible to be used in the conduct of all human affairs.  This undertaking meant that the Biblical scholars pored over the bible to cull all the laws commanded by God.  If there were disputes about the meaning of these law, the Rabbi’s debates are still recorded in this book.

Talmud Yerushalmi  (Jerusalem)

By 425 in Palestine (as the Romans called their captured province), the Rabbi’s (Amoraim and Saboraim) canonized the Talmud which interprets the    and Bible according to logical principles and applied these principles (precedents) as applied to everyday conduct, strikingly similar to the English law we Americans use today.

Talmud Bavli (Baylonian)

But in 525 C.E., the most authoritative Talmud Bavli (Baylonian) was developed in Babylonia (modern day Iraq) where most of the dispersed Jews lived and thrived.  The three most important talmudic academies (and its teachers) were located in this region.  The Talmud is one of the most amazing collections of religious literature in the world.  Within its pages, one finds all sorts of material - legends, personal anecdotes, legal arguments, technical discussions, biographies, science, historical incidents, etc.  However, its emphasis is upon the clear, logical interpretation of Jewish Law, based on actual, concrete cases. 

The Talmud could be analogized as a legal case book.   It recounts the facts of a particular case, the legal issues raised, the reasoning of majority decision and (most importantly), the reasoning of the minority decision.  Thus, while Church canon law began to evolve, the minority reasoning was rarely cited for fear of spreading heresy.   Consequently, the writings contained in the Talmud remain a testament to the high level of intellectual activity despite the intense persecutions which the Jews were to experience.  It also showed the acceptance of intellectual diversity and fostering of honest argumentation to reach the truth as revealed by God.

Gaonim

During the 8th through 12th centuries, the heads of the Talmudic academies, the Gaonim, became the leaders of interpreters and decision-makers of Jewish law.  Some of the famous gaonim were: Saadia Gaon; Hai Gaon; and Amram Gaon. 

Commentators

Based on the grammar and word origins, several commentators interpreted the bible and Talmud.  Foremost among these was Rashi.  Living near the French German border in the 12th century, Rashi’s works are unparalleled in their clarity and terseness.  Later the Toasafot, Rashi’s disciples and others refined Rashi’s works.  They particularly sought to reconcile the apparent inconsistencies and contradictions on the Talmud by using scholastic reasoning.  Famous of these commentators was Rabbenu Tam, a grand-son of Rashi.

Golden Age of Jewish Thought

After the fall of Rome, many Jews moved to North Africa and Spain where they lived in relative peace under Moslem rule, in a historical period known as the "Golden Age of Judaism."  From 1000 to 1492, when the Jews were expelled during the Church's Inquisition, Jewish intellectual activity thrived in Spain.  Probably the most famous theologian was Maimonides (whose work some influenced the work of Thomas Aquinas and whose work the Muslims revere).  Influenced by Arabic thinking, which build upon Greek and Roman philosophy, Maimonides prepared a master code of Jewish Law by subject matter.  But this most important work, The Guide To The Perplexed harmonized Jewish thought of the East with the rationality and logical rules of Greek philosophy.  To begin with, he used Aristotle's reasoning to prove the existence of God and then reinterpreted the philosopher's conception of God so it coincided with Judaism.  To this, Maimonides added that the best thinkers were the Prophets since it was God who guided their thinking and their prophecies.  Many confusing Biblical expressions, such as "the hand of God," or "the anger of God" were shown to be figures of speech.  Maimonides provided that there was sound logic behind all of the Judaism's ceremonial practices.  Even the dietary laws and those connected with the Temple sacrifices he claimed were designed to help the Jew remain faithful to the worship on One God.

The essence of Maimonides' Judaism was that humans achieved salvation strictly though obedience to the will of God as revealed in the written and oral (Rabbinic) law, although some would argue a metaphysical side to this profound theologian.

The Codifiers

In the 15th century in the Europe of Provence and in Northern France and Germany, a movement grew which started to codify the Talmud.  The TUR divided the law in to four sections:  civil law; ritual law; holiday law; and laws regarding women and the family.

The culmination of this movement resulted in the Shulkhan Arukh (the setting of the table meaning an order the chaos of disparate law and decision-making).  Rabbi Joseph Karo, a Sephardic (Spanish origin) scholar, composed this mastery of codification.  Shortly thereafter, Rabbi Mosses Isserles recorded his version for the Ashkenazic (European) community.

Responsum

Thereafter, a series of Responsum - questions asked of the leading Rabbi’s of time and their answers have appeared as glosses to the Shulkhan Arukh.  Some of the leading Rabbi’s are Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch (19th century), Joseph Soloveichik (in the late 19th centruy); the Chofetz Chaim (Lithuania), Moshe Feinstein (up to the 1960’s); and the Lubavetcher Rebbe (Schneerson) (up to the 1990’s).

Responsa continue to this day.
 
Glossary

Abudarbum – R. David Abudarbum, 1350, pupil of the Tur commentator on prayer.

Baal Kriah – Shofar sound caller

Baal Tekiah (Tekoa) – Shofar sounder

Chafetz Chaim – b. 1880 – 1933 - compiler of the Mishnah Beruah, a commentary and updating of the Shulchan Aruch

Halacha – Jewish law, either ritual or civil

Kaddish – Prayer recited five times in the morning service

Karo, Rabbi Joseph (aka Rema)– Sephardic compiler of the Shulchan Aruch, 1565

Malchuyot (Kingdom) part of the Musof service consisting of ten Biblical verses

Minhag – a custom; not a law

Mishnah Berurah (20th century) – Chafetz Chaim editing of the Shulchan Aruch (Code of Jewish Laws, 16th century)

Musof Service – the additional service after Sharachis service

Neileh Service – Closing Service on Rosh Hashanah, usually ended by the Shofar calls.

Poskim – commentators and legal scholars who decide Jewish Law

Rama – R. Moses Isserles (1530-1572), writer who adapted the Shulchan Aruch for for Ashkenazi (European Jewry),

Rambam (aka Maimonides) – 13th century philosopher and commentator.  (1090-1150)

Rashba – 1235-1310 - Sephardic – descended from the Jews of Spain,

Shacharis Service – the morning service
Sephardim –Spanish Jewry

Shofarot (Shofar Service)  part of the Musof service consisting of ten Biblical verses
R. Jochan ben Zakkai – Rabbi of the Mishnah

Zichronot (Remembrance) part of the Musof service consisting of ten Biblical verses
 
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Written 2004.

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Arthur L. Finkle June 4th, 2008

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Arthur L. Finkle June 4th, 2008

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